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Sciuridae : Squirrels

Common names: Squirrels, chipmunks, marmots, woodchucks, flying squirrels, prairie dogs, tree squirrels, ground squirrels.

Taxonomy:

Kingdom: Animalia, Phylum: Chordata, Class: Mammalia, Order: Rodentia, Suborder: Sciuromorpha, Family: Sciuridae, Genus: (various), species: spp.

Localitie/Region:

Indigenous to the Americas, Eurasia, Africa, and introduced to Australia. They inhabit almost every region from woodlands and forests, to rainforests and deserts, with an avoidance of extremely dry deserts and high polar regions.

Description:
From the Ancient Greek word “σκίουρος” or “skiouros” (for “shadow tailed”), Old French word “escurel”, Anglo-Normal word “esquirel”, and Latin “sciurus” is the generic name of “squirrel” used first in 1327 to describe a number of bushy tailed rodent-like critters. The Sciuridae family, dates to the Eocene, and is a large group of small to medium sized rodents that include ground squirrels, tree squirrels, flying squirrels, chipmunks, marmots, woodchucks, and prairie dogs. They are most closely related to the mountain beaver as well as the dormouse. The earliest squirrel we know of comes from a fossil and is called “Hesperopetes” dating from the Chadronian (late Eocene, ca. 40-35 million years ago) sharing many similarities to the flying squirrel. Other fossils date from late Eocene, Miocene, onwards to present day – though may have as a group originated from North America. In general, they are small animals ranging from 7-10 centimeters (African Pygmy Squirrel) upwards to the 53-73 centimeters long Alpine Marmot. Those described under the common name of “squirrel” have slender bodies with busy tails and large eyes, soft and silky fur, in a variety of colors from black to brown, tan to orange, and mottled red, brown, orange, tan, black, and white. Their hind legs are longer than their fore limbs, with 4-5 toes on each paw, with a poorly under-developed thumb and soft pads on their undersides. They are primarily herbivores, dining on nuts, seeds, insects, and sometimes small vertebrates. They have excellent vision, are very versative, and possess sturdy claws for climbing and grasping. They have vibrisse on their heads and limbs giving them a very good sense of touch. Their teeth share features with most rodents, holding large gnawing incisors in front and grinding teeth in the back. They can live upwards of 6 years but vary from species to species. They breed one to two times a year, giving birth to a varying range of young after 3-6 weeks of gestation. Squirrels do not have hair when first born, are blind, and have no teeth. Only females look after the young, but weening takes place 6-10 weeks of age, and all squirrels are sexually mature by age 1. The ground-dwellers are very social, while the tree dwellers tend to be more solitary. Tree and ground squirrels are diurnal or crepuscular while the flying squirrel tents to be nocturnal except when lactating with offspring. They rely on foods rich in protein, fats, and carbohydrates. They cannot digest cellulose. Their food source involve a lot of nuts and seeds, as well as buds of trees, plants, conifer cones, fruits, fungi, and green vegetation. Some will consume meat, insects, eggs, small birds, young snakes, and smaller rodents. There are 5 sub-families, with about 58 general and over 285 species.There exists three main groups, the Sciurinae (arboreal/tree living), the Callosciurinae (arboreal/colorful), and the Xerinae (Ground living).

Beard lichen, Congaree National Park, Columbia, SC

Name: Beard Lichen

Common Names:
Beard, Beard Lichen, Usnea, Old Man’s Beard, Beard Lichen, Tree’s Dandruff, Woman’s Long Hair, or Tree Moss. Ipts-aak (a.k.a. “limb moss”), Suts’wakt (Bella Coola in British Columbia), P’u7up (Nitinaht in British Columbia), Chharila (India), Jaegel (Northern Scandinavia).

Taxonomy:
Kingdom: Fungi. Phylum: Ascomycota. Class: Lecanoromycetes. Order: Lecanorales. Family: Parmeliaceae. Genus: Usnea . species: spp.

Localities: Lichens can be found world-wide, from arctic tundra climates, rocky coasts, hot deserts, marshes, fields, and forests. This particular Genus can be found throughout mountainous and woodland areas.  There are numerous species found  as with other lichens, growing on dead or dying trees, fallen wood, and other decaying matter. It is not the cause of the tree’s illness or death. Usnea barbata does not occur in North America. Documentation listing barbata in North America is usually a mis-identification to Usnea xanthopoga, Usnea scabrata, and/or Usnea filipendula.

Description:  

Beard Lichen is a member of the Usnea genus and Parmeliaceae family, and is described as a greenish to yellow ranging colored fruticose (branched, busy, tangled) Lichens that is a mass of long stems and disk-shaped holdfasts that in some eyes resembles a tangled mass of threads, shrub-like growth, or a scruffy beard (i.e. its namesake). Sometimes described as resembling green or grey hair growing from tree branches. Various people, such as the Nitinaht classify the species differently based on the type of tree they are growing on. Most scientists do not differentiate the species based on a tree host, but rather description, color, and growth habitat. There are several species to this Genus based on composition, description, color, and mass. Several these are as follows:

• Usnea barbata or Old Man’s Beard does not occur in North America. Documentation listing barbata in North America is usually a mis-identification to Usnea xanthopoga, Usnea scabrata, and/or Usnea filipendula.
  
• Usnea californica / ceratina or “Warty beard lichen”, Kôchih (by the Pomo of California).
  
• Usnea dasypoga / filipendula or Yerba de la Piedra (Stone Grass) is not found in North America but common in Uruguay.
  
• Usnea densirostra used in Uruguay.
  
• Usnea diffracta or Lao-tzu’s beard, Pine gauze, or Female gauze is not found in North America, but common in China, Korea, and Japan.
  
• Usnea filipendula or (Fishbone beard lichen)” is often misidentified in North America as Usnea plicata.
  
• Usnea florida is commonly used in Sweden, Northern Europe, and Northern Russia.
  
• Usnea hieronymi used in Uruguay.
  
• Usnea hirta or the “Bristly beard lichen”. sometimes confused with Usnea variolosa.
  
• Usnea lacunosa is not found in North America, though referred to in literature as being used as a fiber by the Yuki, Pomo, and Yokia of California. Some write that it was referred to as “moss” by the First People’s and used as bedding.
  
• Usnea longissima or Hanging Moss, “Methuselah’s beard lichen”, Syara (India), and P’u7up (British Columbia).
  Grows upwards of 5 feet (1.5 meters) with lengths of grey-like threads hanging from the tree or shrub branches in humid or mountainous regions. This particular species gets confused with the non-lichen plant known as Spanish Moss.


• Usnea plicata is not found in North America, but literally referring to is is probably a mis-identification for Usnea filipendula.
  
• Usnea scabrata is often confused with Usnea barbata references in North America which was probably this species.
  
• Usnea thallus
  Means “Cream on the inside”, often used in indigenous medicine and magic.

Cultivation:
Beard Lichen reproduces by fragmentation, asexually through soredia, and sexually through ascogonium and spermatogonium with a very slow growth rate.

Common Uses:

Often collected as fodder. Some species are used to create an orange dye. Other species also used to create other dye coloring such as greens, blues, purples, and oranges that are used for textiles. Used as a Dye in North America, British Columbia’s indigenous, and Europeans. A dark blue dye for traditional textiles is made by Peruvian peoples of the thalli of the Usnea barbata while the same species was used by Europeans to create a orange-red dye to stain wools and by the Dakota to create a yellow dye. Since barbata is not found in North America, this was propbably scabrata. Both of these were used to create the toiled Cyprus Powder. Usnea hirta used by the Navajo in New Mexico to make a flesh colored Dyes. Usnea plicata is used as a green or yellow woolen Dye in Europe. It is used by scientists to gauge pollution, since the Usnea genus is very sensitive to the environment, and absorbs air pollution, especially sulfur dioxide. It has been used to treat fish infections in aquariums and ponds. Usnea barbata is also used in creating cosmetics because of its antimicrobial and antifungal properties as a preservative and deodorant. Usnea barbata is used as a source for Dye by the peoples of Peru and Europe. Usnea spp. used as fiber by many of the British Columbia’s First Nation peoples such as the Salish, Sechelt, Secwepemc, Nuxalk, Bella Coola, Nitinaht, Haida, Gwich’in, and Stl’atl’imx. The Scandinavians used it as animal forage and fodder. Used by the Haida for bedding when camping and also when mixed with Alextoria sarmentosa to strain hot pitch for removing impurities before it was used as a medicine. Sechelt used them for baby diapers and to make a fire smoke. The Bella Coola, Nuxalk, and Secwepemc use Usnea spp. to make false whiskers and artificial hair when decorating their dance masks and creating costumes for children. The First Nation’s of British Columbia mixed it with Alectoria sarmentosa to wipe the slime off fish as they believed washing them would affect the taste of the fish, and to protect food in earthen pits. Some peoples and other Interior Salish would weave clothing out of it for ponchos and foot wear, sometimes interwoven with silverberry bark and other stronger fiber. Usnea californica / ceratina used as a source for fiber by the Pomo tribe in California to create diapers for babies and “toilet chips”. Usnea florida is commonly used in Sweden, Northern Europe, and Northern Russia to create alcohol (brandy) or make dyes (green-yellow or red-brown). Usnea longissima was used for fiber by North Americans and the Bhotia and Garhwali of India. Also used as decoration by Europeans. Often used by North American indigenous to create feminine hygiene products, bedding, diapers, and to strain medicines. In India, was used to stuff cushions and pillows until it became believed to have caused asthma. Most likely the first Christmas tree tinsel in Northern Europe. Usnea scabrata was used to create a yellow dye for porcupine quills by the Dakota peoples.

Culinary:

There are no records of it being used as food by humans. It is however, often eaten by wild animals. The Tarahumara in Northern Mexico use it to create Alcohol such as with Usnea as a catalyst for making fermented corn beverages. Other Lichens are often eaten by some animals, including reindeer in arctic regions and the Northern Flying Squirrel. Lepidoptera larvae will also feed exclusively on lichens. Lichens are very low in protein and high in carbohydrates. Some species and types are eaten by humans in various cultures around the world, especially in times of famine, though considered a delicacy by others. Lichen polysaccharides are generally indigestible to humans and some contain a mildly toxi secondary compound that needs to be removed before eating. Very few are poisonous, but those high in vulpinic acid or usnic acid are toxic. These toxic lichen are usually yellow in color.

Medicinal:

Usnic acid is found in large quantities in Usnea spp., as well as in several other lichen genera. It is a fairly wide spectrum antibiotic and is the most active antibiotic to be characterized from lichens (Abo-Khatwa et al. 1996; Shibamoto and Wei 1984; Rowe et al. 1991; Dobrescu et al. 1993). Usnic acid and diffractaic acid (a derivative of usnic acid) have both been demonstrated to be analgesic when tested on mice (Okuyama et al. 1995). And a mixture of usnic acid and isolichenin has been demonstrated to have moderate activity against sarcoma 180 and Ehrlich tumor cells (Periera et al. 1994).All of the species are used medicinally, with evidence dating as far back as 1,600 years ago. Used medicinally for a host of purposes by the indigenous and First Nation’s of North and South America, as well as by peoples in Asia, Europe, Africa, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands. The Chinese use it in contemporary homeopathic medicine. High in vitamin C and saturated with Usnic acid makes Usnea a very special lichen. This is because Usnic acid is a potent antibiotic and antifungal agent found in all of the species. This agent combined with the hair-like structure of the lichen means that it was often used to treat surface wounds when sterile gauze and modern antibiotics were unavailable, both externally, topically, and internally. Scientists though caution there is a potential hepatoxicity issue that it should only be used externally. It is also used as an antibiotic for gram-positive bacteria and as an anti-fungal against Candida albicans. In Germany, it has been approved for mild inflammation of the oral and pharyngeal mucosa since 1989. Was used to create the product Lipokinetix that was used to induce weight loss via an increase in the metabolic rate, but became a topic of FDA warnings in the United States due to its potential hepatoxicity. The species Usnea thallus (means “cream in the inside”) was used as bandages by many different peoples around the globe. As it has a high concentration of usnic acid which is the strongest antiobiotic found in lichens. It was used as a remedy for whooping cough, epilepsy, dropsy, and catarrh. As a tonic, was used as a diuretic and astringent. Usnea barbata is utilized medicinally primarily by the peoples of Ancient Greece, Medieval Europe, Spain, Malay Peninsula. Usnea barbata is strongly used as a antibiotic especially in lung and upper respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, and was used to stimulate hair growth as early as 300 B.C.E. Prescribed for uterine ailments by Hypocrites as early as 400 B.C.E., as a hair strengthener in the 15th century Europe, a secant and antiseptic in Spain, and the natives of the Malay Peninsula used it for colds and strenthening after confinement.

Medicinally there are reports of Usnea being used for medicine in North America, China, New Zealand, Spain, Africa, Thailand, India, and Italy. In Spain, Usnea spp. is used in traditional medicine to treat respiratory ailments. It was also used as an ingredient in a herbal tea given by African guides to relieve altitude sickness on Mt. Killimonjaro, Africa. Used by the Karen of Doi Inthanon in Chiang Mail Province of Thailand to make post-delivery bath for women to aid parturition and prevention of infection. In India, it is used to create the drug Chharila. Shepherds in Italy would put Usnea spp. in their shoes to prevent and treat blistering. The Bella Coola in British Columbia used it to poultice sores and boils if found growing on alder trees. Some tribes used it to dress wounds, diaper babies, creating sanitary napkins, and for wiping salmon. Used in contemporary western medicine for homeopathics, for antibiotic salves, anti-fungal remedy, deodorants, as well as herbal tinctures. Usnea dasypoga / filipendula is used medicinally by the people of Uruguay. Usnea diffracta is used medicinally by Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese as early as 500 C.E., picked in the 5th lunar month, dried in the shade, and used to stop dizziness, sweating, cold, pain, and/or phlegm. Also used to treat urinary tract infections and to stop swelling in female genitalia. A drink or decoction of it is consumed to treat pulmonary tuberculosis and chronic bronchitis. Usnea filipendula used medicinally by the people of Java and Russia as a powder to treat wounds. Usnea longissima was used medicinally by First Nations in British Columbia, and peoples of India, China, and Europe. The Nitinaht used it to to dress wounds by wrapping the lichen around the wound and left to absorb the bleeding. The Baiga of Madhya Pradesh (India) mixed the lichen with some other ingredients to treat bone fractures. Chinese herbalists prescribed it to be taken orally as an expectorant and applied topically as a powder to treat surface infections or external ulcers, and in modern society as a expectorant tincture and to treat tuberculosis lymphedenitis (since it contains various b-orcinol depsides including evernic, barbatic, or diffractaic acids). Usnea plicata is used medicinally by Europeans as a remedy for whooping-cough.

Cultural/Mythical/Fantasy:
Written about in Shakespeare’s “Idle moss”, referring to as the “beard moss” or “tree moss”, it was used as an inspiration in many pieces of poetry. According to the Nitinaht people, since this species looks like green or grey hair hanging from tree branches, lends an examply to their mythos. In China Usnea diffracta has been called “Lao Tzu’s beard” and has been described as a medicine in Chinese herbals as early as 500 C.E. According to Menomini legend, lichens are said to be scabs from the head of Må’nåpus. Må’nåpus placed the scabs where they are to keep his uncles and aunts from starving. Another version of this legend is that the lichens were scabs from when Må’nåpus burned his buttocks, and they came off as he slid down a slanting rock. The Northern Paiute of Nevada called the orange and yellow crustose lichens on rocks “Lizard semen” which probably comes from the little pushups that western fence lizards do on rocks. Another In China Usnea diffracta has been called “Lao Tzu’s beard” and has been described as a medicine in Chinese herbals as early as 500 C.E.

Research/Article by:
Thomas Baurley, Leafworks Research, www.leafworks.net.
[Official page: http://www.treeleavesoracle.org/treelore/?p=673]. March 3, 2013.
This page is continually being updated as research and facts are revealed.
Please check back often if this is a special interest to you.

Bibliography/ Recommended Reading/ Resources:

• Adams, Scott.
  
  “What’s That On My Trees?”. Website http://danshamptons.com/article/lifestyle/ask-the-expert-house-and-home/ask-the-expert-what%E2%80%99s-that-on-my-trees/ referenced March 3, 2013.
• Ahmadjian, V.
  1993 – “The Lichen Symbiosis”. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
• Brodo, I.M., S.D. Sharnoff, S. Sharnoff.
  2001 – “Lichens of North America”. Yale University Press, New Haven.
• Encyclopedia Brittanica.
  “Bearded Lichen”. Web site http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/57366/beard-lichen visited and referenced March 3, 2013.
• Knowles, M.C.
  1929 – “Lichens of Ireland”. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 38: 1-32.
• Sanders, W. B.
  2001 – “Lichens: Interface between mycology and plant morphology”. BioScience 51 (12): 1025-1035.
• University of Victoria
  
  Website http://web.uvic.ca/~stucraw/part2AM.html visited and referenced March 3, 2013.
• Ward, Stephen.
  
  “Naturally Scottish: Foreward on Lichens.” Web site http://www.snh.org.uk/publications/on-line/NaturallyScottish/lichens/ referenced March 3, 2013.
• Wikipedia:
  • Lichen. Website http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichen referenced March 3, 2013
  • Usnea. Website http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usnea referenced March 3, 2013.
  • visited and referenced March 3, 2013.

Name: Lichen

Common Names:
Lichen, beard, beard lichen, algae, fungus, Sunburn, Rock Hair, Yellow Candles, Golden Pine Lichen, Little Clouds, Oak Moss, Crab’s-eye, Coral Crust, Sea Ivory, Crotal Coille – wood crottle, Tree Lungwort, Lobaria pulmonaria, Lus Ghoinnich, Dog Lichen, Peltigera canina, Crotal Dubh – dark crottle,, Heather-rags, Hypogymnia physodes.

Taxonomy:
Kingdom: Fungi. Phylum: Ascomycota. Class: Lecanoromycetes. Order: Lecanorales. Family: Parmeliaceae. Genus: . species: spp.

Localities:
Lichens can be found world-wide, from arctic tundra climates, rocky coasts, hot deserts, marshes, fields, and forests. There are numerous species found in the stones, rocks, walls, buildings, soil surfaces, branches and trees in temperate woodlands and rain forests. (Research still pending.)

Description:  
Lichens are a type of fungus that grows symbiotically with its host plant – usually trees, shrubs, and/or dead wood. Lichens consist of an alga and a fungus living together in a symbiotic association. It relies of its photosynthetic partner (photobiont) to live. This makes it a composite organism. A lichen consists of an upper part of interwoven fibres related to the fungus and a layer of more loosely fibrous structures related to the fungus that surrounds the algae. The algae can carry out photosynthesis and feed the fungi. The fibrous structures that make up the fungi adds support to the algae and keeps the algae from drying out.The photobiont is usually a cyanobacterium or a green algae. They are named after their fungal counterparts. Lichens are quite different however from those of isolated fungus and algae in culture. They are long living but vulnerable to environmental disturbances. Many lichens are known to be very sensitive to environmental pollution, and they have been used as ‘indicators’ of pollution. As they are pokilohydric, they are capable of surviving extremely low levels of water content. Its body is called the thallus and differs from the fungal or algae host growing separately. Fungus surrounds the algal cells often enclosing them within complex fungal tissues unique to lichen associations, often penetrating the algal cell wall and forming penetration haustoria or pegs similar to that of the pathogenic fungi. The cyanobacterial cells or algal are photosynthetic reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide into organic carbon sugars that feed both of the symbionts giving both partners water and mineral nutrients via atmospheric rain and dust. Blue-green algae occur as symbionts in about 8% of known lichens. 90% of known lichens have a green algae as a symbiont with Trebouxia as the most common genus occurring in about 40% of all lichens. The 2nd most common is Trentepohlia. Some lichens have the aspect of leaves, such as in the foliose lichens, while others cover the substrate like a crust, and others adopt shrubby forms or a gelatinous texture. The form varies based on the genetic material of its fungal partner, association with a photobiont to develop it. Lichens reproduce asexually via vegetative reproduction or by dispersal of diaspores containing algal and fungal cells. Many lichen fungi reproduce sexually in like fashion that is typical of fungi by producing spores that are the result of sexual fusion and meiosis. Once merged with a compatible algal host, it can form into a functional lichen. (Research still pending.)

Cultivation:    (Research still pending.)

Common Uses:
Various species are used to make dyes, perfumes, and decoration. They are made to make perfumes, henna, and shampoo. Lichens produce secondary compounds including pigments that will reduce harmful amounts of sunlight and powerful toxins that can reduce herbivory or kill bacterial elements. Some are used to make dyes such as cudbear and others to extract purple and red coloring. Those in the  family Roccellaceae, commonly called orchella weed or orchil are the most popularly used. Orcein and other lichen dyes have largely been replaced by synthetic versions. Lichen dyes are easy to make as it involves simply boiling lichen in hot water or by fermenting the lichen in ammonia. Lichen is used for decoration and crafts, such as for making trees and shrubs in models, and model railroading.  They have been used indirectly to make alcohol or molasses, or to feed to livestock. Lichens have also commonly been used as a fiber for many different things, anything from baby diapers to clothing to tinder to bedding.  Mixed with tobacco, it was smoked in Mauritania (species Parmelia paraguariensi) as well as being burned as an insect repellent and used as a perfume.  The Denís of Amazonian Brazil used pyrenocarpous lichen as recreational snuff. Letharia vulpina and Vulpicida pinastri have been used to poison wolves in Northern Europe and Letharia vulpina to make poison arrowheads by the Achomawi of California.  Xanthoria parietina and Parmelia saxatilis are used in the ritual of well-dressing in England to make miniature scenes to decorate wells. The Secwepemc, Nuxalk, and Bella Coola all use Alectoria sarmentosa and Usnea spp.  as false whiskers and artificial hair for decorating dance masks, especially for children masquerading.  Cladina stellaris has been harvested in large quantities in Scandinavia to make floral decorations, wreaths, and architectural models. Usnea longissima in Northern Europe was the first Yule tree tinsel. Some lichens have been used in tanning and the manufacture of chemicals.
Culinary:
Lichens are often eaten by some animals, including reindeer in arctic regions and the Northern Flying Squirrel. Lepidoptera larvae will also feed exclusively on lichens. Lichens are very low in protein and high in carbohydrates. Some species are eaten by humans in various cultures around the world, especially in times of famine, though considered a delicacy by others.  Iceland moss (Cetraria islandica) is an important food source in northern Europe being cooked as a bread, pudding, salad, soup, or porridge. In North America, it was pit cooked. Some at the partially digested reindeer lichen after removing it from the rumen of the deer killed. Rock tripe (Umbilicaria spp.) is frequently used as a emergency food in North America as well as various traditional Korean and/or Japanese foods.  There are two problems experienced by humans when eating lichens. These are usually the secondary lichen compound found in them. Most contain a variety of secondary compounds. Lichen compounds are usually acids and have a acrid flavor. Lichen polysaccharides are generally indigestible to humans and some contain a mildly toxic secondary compound that needs to be removed before eating.   In fact, there are only two lichen compounds found to be poisonous – the vulpinic acid and pinastric acid, both of which would have to be ingested in significant quantity to be fatal. Very few are poisonous, but those high in vulpinic acid or usnic acid are toxic .These toxic lichen are usually yellow in color. Many lichen compounds are herbivore deterrents causing bad taste, digestive irritation, and toxicity in large quantities for extended periods of time. Other major issue is that the complex carbohydrates in lichens are not easily broken down in the human digestive tract. If the secondary compounds and hydrolyzing the lichen polysaccharides is completed, lichens can be made edible. The most frequently used preparation involves boiling or steaming as suggested by the indigenous practices of various people in India, Europe, and North America. Boiling will hydrolyze the lichen polysaccharides into digestible forms and remove many lichen compounds. Water would be discarded, and the lichen eaten.  Some would simply soak or rinse the lichen in water. Northern Europeans as well as the Iroquois of North America would soak lichens in ash water – as wood ash is alkaline, it would have been very effective in removing acidic lichen compounds and hydrolize the polysaccharides. Adding acidic ingredients like onions to food preparation or dilute acid is commonplace when cooking lichen which would also help hydrolyze the polysaccharides and make the lichen compounds more water soluble. Some researchers have found calcium and iron levels in some lichens to be higher than that found in cereals or other green leafy materials. Peltigera canina has been found to be high in proteins and essential amino acids. Before eating lichens, one should be aware of where their lichens come from, as lichens can accumulate toxins from their environment. Cetraria islandica and Cladina spp. have been found to have extroadinarily high levels of lead, mercury, and cadmium. Natural radionuclides Po-210 and Pb-210 both accumulate in lichens, as well as Cs-137 and Sr-90 from nuclear test explosions.

Medicinal:
Various species are used in traditional medicines. Some are made to create primitive antiobiotics. In Russia, the Usnea species were used to treat wounds in the mid-20th century. Lobaria pulmonaria is collected in large quantities as Lungwort as it has a very lung-like appearance and sold as a cure for lung diseases. Peltigera leucophlebia is used a supposed cure for thrush as its cephalodia resembles the appearance of the disease. Olivetol is naturally present in certain species of lichens which its share with the cannabis plant, internally producing the related substance of olivetolic acid which can be used to bio-synthesize  tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).  In 1874, Scientists suggested that lichen can be eaten as a  substitute carbohydrates by diabetics. Modern research does not suggest that any lichens are a cure for diabetes, but  did discover that these lichen polysaccharides were not digestible by humans, dogs, or rabbits and if lichenin and isolichenin are hydrolyzed, they yield glucose and other readily digestible simple sugars. Some lichen compounds can act as antibiotics, fungicides, and herbivore deterrents blessing the lichen some protection, and probably endows the lichen with some medicinal characters as well. Some researchers postulate that over 50% of all lichen species have antibiotic properties and many to suggest anti-tumor agents, antibiotic as well as anti-inflammatory properties. Some research suggests that proto-licheresterinic acid may be invaluable for the treatment of ulcers, cancers, and AIDS prevention. Vulpinic acid also has some mild antibiotic properties.

Cultural/Mythical/Fantasy:

The mythology seem to embedded be within the naming structure of various Lichen genus and species or common names. Medicinally and magically they are believed to cure whatever they are shaped after. According to the “Doctrine of Signatures” in the 15th century, a plant could be used to treat whatever ailment it most looked like.  The name “lichen” comes from the Greek word “Leprous” and refers to the use of some lichens for treating cutaneous diseases due to their peeling-skin appearance.  In Scotland, Ireland, England, and Wales the names for the Lichen often relate to what part of the human anatomy or a particular illness that the lichen resembles, with a belief that particular lichen can cure that ailment. Gaelic Lus Ghoinnich is a plant for wounds, Dog Lichen is a cure for the bite of a mad dog – due to the underside bearing fang-like structures, etc. According to Menomini legend, lichens are said to be scabs from the head of Må’nåpus. Må’nåpus placed the scabs where they are to keep his uncles and aunts from starving. Another version of this legend is that the lichens were scabs from when Må’nåpus burned his buttocks, and they came off as he slid down a slanting rock. The Okanagan-Colville have a legend about how Bryoria fremontii was created by originating from Coyote’s hair. The legend has numerous variants but basically involves a coyote trying to catch some swans who end up sweeping him into the sky, flying away with him, and  letting go of him when he is high up in the air. As Coyote fell he became caught in the branches of the trees. Once he freed himself he leaves much of his hair entangled in the branches. Therefore, Coyote transformed this hair into Bryoria fremontii, saying “You, my hair, will not be wasted. The coming people will gather you and make you into food.”  The Gitksan called a species of lichen Lobaria Nagaganaw meaning “Frog’s dress” or “Frog blanket” which was specifically  associated with frogs and used  in spring bathing rituals to bring health and long life.  In China Usnea diffracta has been called “Lao Tzu’s beard” and has been described as a medicine in Chinese herbals as early as 500 A. D.

Magic:  The species of Dictyonema was used by the Waorani as a hallucinogen in shamanistic rituals.  An unidentified saxicolous lichen was called “Jievut hiawsik” (means “Earth Flower)   by the Pima tribe of California. It was used as a good luck charm and  smoked for its narcotic effect. Various lichens have been used as an aphrodisiac.  Peltigera canina was used by the Southern Kwakiult as a love charm. The Apache used Letharia vulpina to paint crosses on their feet so they could pass their enemies unseen. A species of Peltigera or Lobaria was called “Frog blanket” by the Gitksan of British Columbia, and because it was associated with frogs it was used in a spring bathing ritual to bring health and long life.

Species:
• Usnea spp. or Beard Lichens

Research/Article by:
Thomas Baurley, Leafworks Research, www.leafworks.net.
[Official page: http://www.treeleavesoracle.org/treelore/?p=673]. March 3, 2013.
This page is continually being updated as research and facts are revealed.
Please check back often if this is a special interest to you.

Bibliography/ Recommended Reading/ Resources:

• Adams, Scott.
  “What’s That On My Trees?”. Website http://danshamptons.com/article/lifestyle/
  ask-the-expert-house-and-home/ask-the-expert-what%E2%80%99s-that-on-my-trees/
  referenced March 3, 2013.
• Ahmadjian, V.
  1993 – “The Lichen Symbiosis”. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
• Brodo, I.M., S.D. Sharnoff, S. Sharnoff.
  2001 – “Lichens of North America”. Yale University Press, New Haven.
• Casselman, Karen Diadick and Karen Leigh.
  2001 – “Lichen Dyes: The New Sourcebook. Dover publications.
• Knowles, M.C.
  1929 – “Lichens of Ireland”. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 38: 1-32.
• Sanders, W. B.
  2001 – “Lichens: Interface between mycology and plant morphology”. BioScience 51 (12): 1025-1035.
• University of Victoria
• Ethno-lichen study. Website http://web.uvic.ca/~stucraw/part2AM.html visited and referenced March 3, 2013.
• Ward, Stephen.
  “Naturally Scottish: Foreward on Lichens.” Web site http://www.snh.org.uk/publications/on-line/NaturallyScottish/lichens/ referenced March 3, 2013.
• Wikipedia:
  • Lichen. Website http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichen referenced March 3, 2013

Bracket or Shelf Fungi, Congaree National Park, Columbia, SC

Name: Bracket fungi, or shelf fungi

Common Names:
Bracket fungi, shelf fungi, conks, oysters, wood rot fungi, sulphur shelf, birch bracket, dryad’s saddle, artist’s conk, turkey tail.

Taxonomy:
Kingdom: Fungi. Phylum: Basidiomycota. Class: Agaricomycetes. Order: Polyporales. Family: Polyporaceae. Genus: Polyporus. species: spp.

Localities:
Many various regions of the world, especially tropical and sub-tropical forests. Personally photographed and/or observed in South Carolina, United States. White-rot fungi, also known as “Pleurotus fungi” is found through tropical and temperate climates around the world. Research still pending.

Description:  Commonly known as Conks or oysters, this “bracket” or “shelf” fungi is parasitic and can be found on living and/or dead trees. They come is a variety of different shapes and forms which sometimes define their species. If on a living tree, can accelerate its death phenomenally. This fungus will thrive off a dead tree even when fallen or only a stump remains. They produce an appearance of a shelf or bracket shaped fruiting body that mushroom collectors call “conks” and/or “oysters” as they lie in a close planar grouping of separate or inter-connecting horizontal rows. Their numbers can vary from dozens of caps blended in together or a single row of a few caps. They resemble mushrooms. They often grow in semi-circular shapes looking like trees or wood. They are parasitic, and/or saprotrophic. They are tough, sturdy, and firm with a strong grasp of the tree’s bark. They can live for a long time. This leads to the name polypores as a group for hard/leathery fungi that often lack a stem growing straight out of wood. They are defined by their growth form rather than their phylogeny and the group contains members of multiple clades. As a fungus they are related to the large group of eukaryotic organisms within the family of yeasts, mushrooms, and molds. The fungal cells have cell walls that contain chitin, unlike that of plant cell walls which contain cellulose. Fungi are more closely related to animals than they are to plants. White-rot fungi, also known as “Pleurotus fungi” is found mainly on hardwood trees, though some decay conifer wood. The Polyporus squamosus, or Dryad’s Saddle is commonly found on hardwood logs and especially common May through June – this species is tan to brown with darker feathery scales and is edible. Some say it smells like watermelon rinds. Research still pending.

Cultivation:

Fungi decays and breaks down wood, manufactured materials, and buildings. Forms annual fruiting bodies, though some are perennial growing larger year after year. They produce spores called basiodiospores within the pores on the under surface. Research still pending.

Common Uses: Research still pending.

Culinary:
Some species are used for human consumption. Pleurotus ostreatus (oyster mushroom) is commonly cultivated for food. Polyporus squamosus, or Dryad’s Saddle is listed by many sites as an edible. As with any plant, herb, or fungi – research your specimen and double-check identification. Some species look identical and can be poisonous. This guide is not accurate for identification, you will need to consult a specialist or expert. This guide is for mythology, definition, and folklore around various plants, trees, and fungi not a culinary or medicinal advice guide. Those who do eat the Dryad’s saddle have recommended it be sauteed in butter with garlic, shallots, or ramps. They also recommend not to gather for food those larger than your palm – the smaller the better. Wild Man Steve Brill claims that the “mature mushroom is much too leathery and bitter to eat, but any part of the immature cap that you can cut with your fingernail is edible.” He also claims that mushroom hunters often find this one as inferior, but he says it can be turned into a delicacy and uses the following recipe: “Marinate broad slices overnight in 2 parts olive oil and 1 part wine vinegar, with some garlic, thyme, rosemary, tarragon, and tamari soy sauce. Drain, and bake 20-30 minutes over a cookie sheet on racks, in a preheated 350 degree oven. Pat dry with paper towels and enjoy as is, or add to any savory recipe.” Research still pending.

Medicinal:
Some species have medicinal properties. Pleurotus species are also nematophagous and catch nematodes by paralyzing them with a toxin.The common turkey-tail bracket fungus, Trametes versicolor is used in a protein-bound polysaccharide preparation as a non-specific immunostimulator produced in Japan for clinical treatment of stomach, esophagus, colon, rectum, lung, and mammary gland cancers. By 1984 it ranked 19th on the list of the world’s most commercially successful drugs with annual sales of 255 million dollars (Yang et al. 1992. J. Immun. Immunophar. 12: 29-34). [ http://www.angelfire.com/wizard/kimbrough/Textbook/
MedicinalUsesOfMushrooms_blue.htm ] Research still pending.

Cultural/Mythical/Fantasy:
The Polyporus squamosus, or Dryad’s Saddle has the appearance of a “perfect seat or ride for a wood nymph” which is possible for its namesake. This next tidbit, whether fantasy, RPG, or actual folklore lends suggestion it is a popular mushroom to the Fae. That which is called the “Shelfung” mythologically is also referred to as the Squilla in mythical Sarvonia and considered an edible fungus popular among the orcs, elves, brownies, hobbits, and thergerim, and humans as a spice for various foods such as for leveret, force bread, and poultry. The Tharian call it “Shelfung”, the Orcs call it “Kroch’tlor”, and the Thergerimtaal call it “Urtumua”. Orcs believe this fungus will strengthen the blood for fighting and their name for it translates to “Good Blood”. The Blaa’kr tribe on the Isles of R’unor believe it enhances sexual potency. Hobbits (not a actual species of Fae, created by Tolkien) say it will increase one’s wisdom.
[Santharia.com: http://www.santharia.com/herbarium/squilla_fungus.htm ] Research still pending.

Research/Article by:
Thomas Baurley, Leafworks Research, www.leafworks.net.
[Official page: http://www.treeleavesoracle.org/treelore/?p=641]. March 3, 2013.
This page is continually being updated as research and facts are revealed.
Please check back often if this is a special interest to you.

Bibliography/ Recommended Reading/ Resources:

• Adams, Scott.
  “What’s That On My Trees?”. Website http://danshamptons.com/article/lifestyle/ask-the-expert-house-and-home/ask-the-expert-what%E2%80%99s-that-on-my-trees/ referenced March 3, 2013.
• Brough, Kim.
  Fungi as Saprobes. Website http://www.angelfire.com/wizard/kimbrough/Textbook/MedicinalUsesOfMushrooms_blue.htm visited and referenced March 3, 2013.
• Jazjaz.net: “30 Enchanting Pictures of Mushrooms, Toadstools, and Fungi”.
  Ref: http://www.jazjaz.net/2009/07/30-enchanting-pictures-of-mushrooms-toadstools-and-fungi.html. Website referenced and views on March 3, 2013.
• Mount Gravatt Environmental Group: Gilled Fungi.
  Website: http://megoutlook.wordpress.com/category/forest-fungi/gilled-fungi/ referenced on March 3, 2013.
• Rockland-Miller, Ari.      The Mushroom Forager: The Oft Overlooked Dryad Saddle. Website http://themushroomforager.com/2011/05/12/the-oft-overlooked-dryads-saddle/ visited and referenced March 3, 2013.
• Santharia.com: The Squilla Fungus (Shelfung).
  Website http://www.santharia.com/herbarium/squilla_fungus.htm visited and referenced March 3, 2013. Fantasy/Mythology.
• Stanley Rice Photography: Evolution Photos – Shelf Fungus and Symbiosis.
  Website http://www.stanleyrice.com/evolution_photos/index.album/shelf-fungi-and-symbiosis?i=39 referenced March 3, 2013.
• Wikipedia:
  • Bracket Fungus. Website http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bracket_fungus referenced March 3, 2013
  • Fungus. Website http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus referenced March 3, 2013.
  • Oyster Mushroom. Website http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oyster_mushroom referenced March 3, 2013
  • Wood Decay Fungus. Website http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood-decay_fungus#White_rot referenced March 3, 2013
• Wild Man Steve Brill.
  “Dryad’s Saddle”. Website http://www.wildmanstevebrill.com/Mushrooms.Folder/Dryad’s%20Saddle.html visited and referenced March 3, 2013.

Current Mood:  accomplished

Florida Museum of Natural History, Tallahassee, Florida

Olive Jar
Produced from 1490 to 1900 CE, originating in Spain

The “Olive Jar” or tinajas, peruleras, or botijas are a very common storage or shipping vessel type and classification found throughout the world, especially from Spain to Mexico, the Carribean, and other Spanish colonies. It was commonly used as a shipping container from Spain to the New World. The shape evolved through time evolving in shape and manufacturing techniques. The pottery is usually a unglazed coarse earthenware with a buff off-white to tan or light orange paste with grit or heavy sand tempering. Vessels are a amphoroidal jar and can have a green lead glaze covering a portion of the vessel. The ceramic can be split up into different styles including generic, early, middle, or late style. Ceramic type is written about by Deagan (1987), Goggin (1960), Marken (1994), and Avery (1997).

Florida Museum of Natural History’s Guide to Ceramics: Generic Olive Jar, Early Style, Late Style, and Middle Style.

Early style olive jar ware:

Florida Museum of Natural History, Tallahassee, Florida

Florida Museum of Natural History, Tallahassee, Florida

“Ship wreck artifacts: from Florida’s coast. (1) Early style olive jar fragment: early style olive jars had two handles. this fragment was recovered from an eighteenth century shipwreck off Florida’s coast. (2) Majolica fragments, Columbia Plain type: Columbia Plain was a common majolica type manufactured from 1492-1650 CE. (3) Lead-glazed earthenware pot. (4) Ceramic fragments, Green Basin type: Green basin pottery, a lead glazed earthenware, had a green colored glaze on the vessel’s interior. The type dates to the 16th century. (5) El Morro ware fragments: this common lead glazed pottery, known as El Morro ware, was in use from about 1550 to 1770 CE. The term “El Morro” was derived by a Florida reearcher and generally is not used outside of Florida. (6) El Morro ware fragments. (7) El Morro water rim fragment. (8) Olive jar – this earthenware jar was recovered from an 18th century shipwreck off Florida’s coast. its form is similar to olive jars used in the 16th century. Its surface is covered partially with barnacle shells. barnacles are sea animals that attach to underwater objects. (9) Olive jar: although this example is from an 18th century shipwreck off Florida’s coast .. its shape is typical of the late 16th century. ” ~ Diorama/display in the Florida Museum of Natural History, Tallahassee, Florida. (Photo 091712-55.jpg) Ship Wreck artifacts: http://www.piraterelief.com/plank/?p=277 (Expected publication January 2013).

Florida Museum of Natural History, Tallahassee, Florida

Florida Museum of Natural History, Tallahassee, Florida

Columbia Plain type Majolica

Produced from 1490 to 1565 CE, originating in Spain

Also known as Columbia Plain green dipped, this Majolica originated in Spain and was spread throughout the Carribean via trade and use. It is very similar to Columbia Plain except a portion of the vessel is covered with a green (light, grass, or turquoise) lead glaze applied usually by dipping over a off-white cream or grey/white tin enameled ceramic. Small fragments are found that may be totally covered with the green glaze that could actually be another lead-glazed ware – so classification needs to be considered. Often used with bowls, escudilla, jars, and plato. appliqued appendages sometimes have vertical I-shaped lug handles. This pottery classification is written about by Deagan (1987), Fairbanks (1973), Goggin (1968), and Lister n’ Lister (1982).

Florida Museum of Natural History Pottery Classification Guide: Columbia Plain type Majolica

“Ship wreck artifacts: from Florida’s coast. (2) Majolica fragments, Columbia Plain type: Columbia Plain was a common majolica type manufactured from 1492-1650 CE. (3) Lead-glazed earthenware pot. ” ~ Diorama/display in the Florida Museum of Natural History, Tallahassee, Florida. (Photo 091712-55.jpg) Ship Wreck artifacts: http://www.piraterelief.com/plank/?p=277 (Expected publication January 2013).

Florida Museum of Natural History, Tallahassee, Florida

Florida Museum of Natural History, Tallahassee, Florida

Lead glazed Earthenware
Produced from 1490 to 1900 C.E., Unknown origin

This is a generic basic lead glazed coarse earthenware found in archaeological sites throughout the Carribean (through trade) and Florida (USA).
It has a coarse earthenware paste that is usually tempered with sand and ranges in color from red to buff. It is found often with a smooth reflective finish and the clear glazes allow the paste color to show through with pigmented glazes imparting a different color to the surface with colored glazes ranging from brownish green to regular green. Some are found decorated with quickly applied lines and loops often in manganese brown color. The types of vessels made from this pottery type were often bacins, bowls, jars, lebrillo, and plato. Those that can’t be classified by most of the currently distinquished identifiable types fall in this category as found on Spanish colonial sites from the 16th-20th century. Deagan has written about this classification (2002).

Florida Museum of Natural History Ceramic Classification: Lead glazed Earthenware

“Ship wreck artifacts: from Florida’s coast. (1) Early style olive jar fragment: early style olive jars had two handles. this fragment was recovered from an eighteenth century shipwreck off Florida’s coast. (2) Majolica fragments, Columbia Plain type: Columbia Plain was a common majolica type manufactured from 1492-1650 CE. (3) Lead-glazed earthenware pot. (4) Ceramic fragments, Green Basin type: Green basin pottery, a lead glazed earthenware, had a green colored glaze on the vessel’s interior. The type dates to the 16th century. (5) El Morro ware fragments: this common lead glazed pottery, known as El Morro ware, was in use from about 1550 to 1770 CE. The term “El Morro” was derived by a Florida reearcher and generally is not used outside of Florida. (6) El Morro ware fragments. (7) El Morro water rim fragment. (8) Olive jar – this earthenware jar was recovered from an 18th century shipwreck off Florida’s coast. its form is similar to olive jars used in the 16th century. Its surface is covered partially with barnacle shells. barnacles are sea animals that attach to underwater objects. (9) Olive jar: although this example is from an 18th century shipwreck off Florida’s coast .. its shape is typical of the late 16th century. ” ~ Diorama/display in the Florida Museum of Natural History, Tallahassee, Florida. (Photo 091712-55.jpg) Ship Wreck artifacts: http://www.piraterelief.com/plank/?p=277 (Expected publication January 2013).

Florida Museum of Natural History, Tallahassee, Florida